Information Management. Practitioner File

Information Management Skills:
The Need

Technology changes, information management problems remain the same (Etzel and Thomas 1996). For some people, the problem is one of access—being “ex-communicated” from the information society by the economics of information technology (Fortner 1995). For others, the problem is coping with information satiation. The abundance of information channels and sources forces people to choose among an excess of options, or else they choose to concentrate on a limited but more manageable data stream (ibid.). This problem is compounded by the chronic fear of incompleteness or the intimidation of learning the mechanics of hardware and software use (Haywood 1997). In the pre-Web world, library classification systems enabled information seekers to experience both specificity and serendipity. Now, the Web has lots of serendipity but achieving specificity is more difficult (ibid.).

Other information management issues are emerging in the electronic environment. Computers lend an aura of authority to the information found through them, leading users to make assumptions about the nature, quality, and comprehensiveness of what they find (Froehlich 1997; Kerka 1999). In addition, information seekers tend to give too much weight to information that has the following characteristics: readily available, consistent with past experiences, “vivid” rather than pallid, or encountered first rather than later (Froehlich 1997). Lack of restrictions and the ease with which data can be manipulated on the Internet have increased the proliferation of misinformation and the incidence of fraud (Kerka 1999). Diverse learning styles, affective states, and technical skills all have an effect on the outcome of an information search (Information Management 1998; Wang and Tenopir 1998).

These factors underlie the need for information management skills. The key to information management is self-management, keeping in mind that the goal of information seeking is finding the answers to personally meaningful questions. With that goal in mind, you can release some anxiety about keeping up with everything, accept the need for continuous learning, remember that non-Internet information sources remain useful, and seek to develop both information seeking skills as well as the capacity for critical analysis, integration, and application.

Etzel and Thomas (1996) recommend using an information management strategy that is derived from your personal or professional goals. In developing such a strategy, ask yourself: Will this information help fulfill my goals? When determining what to retain, remember that information is perishable and its importance decreases over time. Ask yourself: When, how, and in what situation will I use this information again?

With a strategy in place, the next step is choosing and using appropriate information management tools. Factors to consider in evaluating these tools include the following: how much time it will take/do you have to learn to use them; the current state of your hardware, software, and technical support; the type of work you need to accomplish; the cost of acquiring/using the tools; your level of familiarity with searching; and your information needs–“quick and dirty” or in depth, getting up to date, finding new directions, getting a broad overview or answers to specific questions (Cannan and Williams 1997; Etzel and Thomas 1996). An overview of information management tools is provided on page 3.

Understanding, Managing, and Coping with
the Changing Information Environment

The phrase, “nothing is permanent except change itself” certainly applies when it comes to technology. In the past 10 years, because of changes in technology, expectations about providing and accessing information have changed dramatically. Instead of waiting to receive information from a provider or making a trip to the library, the current assumption is that information will be instantly available through the Internet. Previously, an intermediary such as a librarian may have performed the service of selecting information, but now the user is faced with sifting through and selecting the most relevant material from what frequently is an information glut. Although some individuals are comfortable with and relish the changing information environment, others may be struggling with understanding and managing the changes.

Once change was incremental and meant more of the same, only better. Today, however, we are experiencing discontinuous change in many areas of life. Discontinuous change makes it impossible to predict with any confidence what will happen, so it does not guarantee more of the same (Handy 1991). The movement of information resources from internal library holdings to external, electronically accessible materials represents both an incremental and discontinuous change. The information is still available (i.e., more of the same, only better), but the new information environment places new demands on the information user. These demands make it impossible to predict whether the information sought will be acquired, how useful the information will be, and so forth. Although these same issues may have existed before, a familiar information provider could then be consulted for assistance. Many websites offer contact information for assistance or further information but the quality of this assistance, its timeliness, and so forth are unknown.

Understanding the changes that are occurring in the information environment can help reduce the uncertainty that accompanies change. From the users’ perspective, some of the uncertainties might be the extent to which they should become dependent on technology for information, the changes in their roles related to access-ing and selecting information, and possible feelings of inadequacy related to understanding and keeping up with the technology. Rather than reacting negatively, individuals can adopt a perspective that changes are ultimately productive and beneficial. Adopting this perspective can help in gaining a sense of control over the changes, especially the rate at which electronic systems change and the fact “that some aspects of the new electronic environment are paradoxical” (ibid., p. 2). For example, they offer extended access yet involve problems of reliability, copyright, cost, and complexity. In addition, they provide new opportunities for accessing information, yet a person with inadequate information-seeking skills may be unable to take advantage of them (ibid.).

Adapting the characteristics of a learning organization can also be a strategy for coping with the information environment. Learning organizations are skilled in activities that can be applied to information access and use (ibid.):

• Systematic problem solving. Consider what information is needed and for what purposes.
• Experimentation with new approaches. Try out new ways of locating information.
• Learning from experience and past history. Consider what approaches to locating information have worked previously.
• Learning from the experiences and best practices of others. Ask others what approaches they have used in locating information.

Another way of coping with the changing information environment is to consider the perspective of the information provider. Information providers are also undergoing change in how they provide information and may have adopted one of the following approaches (Erickson and Sørgaard 1994):

• Technology driven. In this approach, the focus is on using technology to provide innovative services with little, if any, adjustment to meet the needs of the information users.
• Tradition based. Providers who adopt the tradition-based approach put an emphasis on using technology to make current information available in a new way. Conservative in nature, the emphasis is on providing trustworthy information that is maintained and will be available in the future.
• Change oriented. Rather than making a choice between technology-driven and tradition-based approaches, an organization may use a change-oriented approach to provide completely new and different information.

Consumers can use the information about these approaches in selecting information providers. Those who are comfortable with and use technology may seek out a provider who uses a technology-driven approach, for example.

The cliche “change is inevitable” certainly applies to how information is accessed. Understanding what changes are occurring can be a first step in dealing with and managing the change.

Information Management Tools

This section focuses on issues and guidelines involved in using intelligent agents, search engines, and other online tools to assist you in creating your own personal information pathway .

Intelligent Agents

Intelligent search agents (also known as “bots” or “droids”) can help automate your information seeking and monitor frequently visited sites for updates. These continuously running programs use “spider technology” to crawl across the Web, seeking information that meets your specifications—subject interests, frequency of updating, desired sites, etc. (Stanley 1997). “Turbocharge Your Web Browser” (1999) recommends BotSpot <www.botspot.com> as a place to learn more about agents; there you will find a list of available bots categorized by subject.

Locke (1997) issues some warnings about their use: search agents do not assess the value of information sources— to a bot, the National Enquirer is as good as Oxford University Press; they are not the best tool if serendipity is important; and spider software is still primitive— the information collected is only as good as the links followed. A useful agent allows users to alter their profiles and eliminate useless sources from future searches (Stanley 1997).

A current awareness agent such as Farcast (Tudor 1997) searches news sources and sends results via e-mail. Tudor recommends choosing one that eliminates duplicates and false hits. She suggests that a current awareness agent is useful if you really need up-to-date news on a topic as soon as it is released. Otherwise, it might be more efficient to search news services yourself.

Search Engines

In 1998, Stanley noted the existence of over 2,000 Internet search engines, each with its own methods and learning curve. Bradley (1999a) estimates that, of 800 million available webpages, the top search engines cover only a fraction: AltaVista, 150 million; Northern Light, 160 million; FAST, 200 million. Unlike print documents, Web materials are not well structured and homogenous, and thus many search engines cannot provide high-recall, high-precision retrieval (Berghel et al. 1999). Search engines vary considerably in allowing Boolean search operators (such as AND and OR) and word truncation, in being case sensitive, and in whether or how exact phrases are searched (Froehlich 1997). They also vary in which parts of a website are indexed—URL, full text, first 20 lines, title, links, etc. (ibid.).

Types of search engines include classified lists such as Yahoo, keyword search engines (AltaVista, Northern Lights, HotBot, etc.), and online meta-search engines such as Metacrawler or desktop versions such as WebCompass or Web Ferret. Meta-engines search multiple engines simultaneously, offering the advantages of single page access, one interface to learn, and integrated results (Stanley 1998). However, meta-engines vary in quality and presentation of results (ibid.). Schwartz (1998) recommends that “serious searchers should routinely use more than one” (p. 978).

A basic guideline for choosing a search engine is to determine the type of question you want to ask (Beckett 1998; Bell 1997). Broad questions are better served by a directory such as Yahoo or subject list such as MedWeb, but a broad query would retrieve an overwhelming number of hits in a keyword search engine. For “common” queries (such as airline flight schedules), Bell recommends directories or keyword searches. For “uncommon” queries—complex or specific questions, try keyword search engines or specialized subject sites (search.com lists many of these). For what Bell calls “hallway talk” (e.g., “I heard about this on TV...”), a fruitful source would be Usenet newsgroups, which can be searched via DejaNews <www.deja.com> or special “news” searches on Yahoo, HotBot, etc. The key is matching the tool to the job. For more help on selecting search engines, The Big Hub <www.thebighub.com> and Search Engine Watch <www.SearchEngineWatch.com> categorize engines by subject and give tips about search engine use (Beckett 1998; Bradley 1999b).

Metadata

Traditional information providers such as libraries, as well as some new players, are attempting to structure and organize the online information environments. Increasingly, metadata are being used to describe web pages and digital collections. Metadata provide structured information about information (Tennant 1998), describing traditional cataloging elements such as title and subjects but adding structural and administrative information (creator of resource, file locations, ownership, how files were produced). If you have specific subject needs, electronic libraries or gateways using metadata can be an efficient route. Examples include Gateway to Educational Materials (GEM) <www.thegateway.org>, links provided by the Library of Congress <lcweb.loc.gov/global/library/library.html>, the United Kingdom’s Electronic Libraries Programme (eLib) <www.ukoln.ac.uk/services/elib/>, and the U.S. Government Information Locator Service <http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/gils/index.html>.

Evaluating Websites

“We need to use the same critical evaluative skills in looking for information on the Internet that we would do in a book, a paper index, a musical score, or on an online commercial database.” (Tillman 1998 <online>)

The number of sites available on the World Wide Web increases daily. There are personal, institutional, commercial, and organizational websites. When faced with many sites apparently offering similar information, it is difficult and time consuming to determine the worth of a single site. The quality of information varies greatly in terms of authority, accuracy, currency, reliability, and value.

Before selecting a website, it is important to identify exactly what is needed and expected from it. Once that has been determined, it will be easier to screen sources. In choosing a source, look for one that includes as much of the following information as possible: author’s name, author’s position, author’s affiliation, date of page creation, and contact information (Harris 1997).

The following checklist offers questions to ask when looking at a website to determine whether it is appropriate for your needs. These criteria have been collected from a variety of sources that are listed in the Bibliography on page 7.

1. Author

Authorship is a major criterion for evaluating information. Knowing the basis of authority with which the author speaks is essential (Kirk 1996).

Who is the author of the piece?
Is the author fully identified?
Is the author qualified to address the subject?
Is the author wellknown and well-regarded?
Is there information about the author’s credentials and qualifications?
Is the author the original creator of the information?
Is necessary information such as contact information and date easily found?
Has the author been cited by others?

2. Content

The content of a website should be comprehensible, appropriate, authoritative, and have value for the intended audience.

Is the piece well-written?
Is the resource easy to use? Well organized? Is the information accurate? Objectively presented? Adequately covered? Reliable? Credible?
Are there references? Are sources acknowledged properly?
Is there a print version of the product? Is the Internet product the same?
Is the content appropriate for the Web?
If the resource is derived from another format, does the Web version retain the features of the original? How has it been changed? Does it complement other formats?
Is the information consistent?
Can the information be corroborated?
How does the information compare with that of other reputable sources?
If the subject is controversial, does the author recognize and acknowledge this fact?
Is there obvious bias? Is the information current? Is the date given?
Is the format appropriate?
Does the document follow good graphic design principles?
Does the content match the purpose?
Are all aspects of the subject covered?
Is it clear whether the information is fact or opinion?
Is the information reviewed by peers or editors before it is added to the website?
Is the writing style appropriate for the intended audience?
If a research document, is the methodology explained? Are data collected? For what purpose? Is it clear that the data will be used only for the stated purpose?

3. Organizational Information

Knowing the source of information is important. “Dr. Bob’s Medical Tips” may be from a prestigious site such as Johns Hopkins University or from a quack. Before you follow the advice given, it might be best to check!

Who sponsors or hosts this site?
Is the organization authoritative? Reputable?
Does the organization have a political or philosophical agenda?
Is the originating sponsor a national (or international) institution?
Does the author’s affiliation with this particular institution bias the information?

4. Website Characteristics

Visitors to a website want information without having to go through layers to find it. Often, contact information— an essential feature of every website—is buried two or three levels into the site. Consumers want clear information that can be located quickly. Particularly on commercial websites, pricing and contact information should be apparent immediately (Fister 1999).

Are inclusion criteria explicit?
Is it an organizational or personal Web page? Is it an authoritative/recognized organization? If personal, is the person fully identified?
Is contact information readily available?
Is the information easily accessible or do users have to wade through layers of pages to find what they need?
Are photo files and graphics necessary? Do they add to the substance of the site?
Does the site download easily?
Is the site pleasing to the eye? Easy to read?
Is there a consistent navigation bar for ease of return to previous/home pages?
Is there a search engine on the site? Is it easy to use?
When was the information on this site created and/or last updated?
What quality control measures are used?
Is the site laid out clearly? Is it easy to navigate? Is there a site map? Is it easy to locate information and move around through the site?
Is attention paid to the needs of people with disabilities?
Is copyright information available?
Is there a clearly stated purpose for the website?
How does this site compare with others on the same subject?
Is the site appropriate for its intended audience?
Does this site make a unique contribution?
What is the purpose for this site? Does it inform? Link similar sites? Explain? Persuade? Or promote self-exhibition/ aggrandizement?
Is the site stable?
Is the site readable from all computers/browsers?
Is there unnecessary information that could be eliminated?
Are there special software, password, or network requirements?
Is there a feedback form?
If there is an e-mail address, are questions answered promptly?

5. Links

Links to related websites are included on many websites and can be valuable.

How reliable are the links?
Are the links annotated?
Are the criteria for selecting links explained?
Are the links relevant and appropriate?
Do links point to internal as well as external websites?
Are the links arranged usefully?

Characteristics of a Bad Website

Reverse many of the criteria for a good website and you will have a bad one. The following are characteristics of websites to be avoided.

• Anonymity
• Lack of quality control
• Negative metainformation
• Bad grammar, misspelled words
• Old information
• Infrequent updates
• Omissions of information
• No dates
• Sweeping generalizations
• One-sided information
• Obvious bias
• Inconsistency
• Intemperate language
• Conflict of interest
• Unsubstantiated statistics, information
• Difficulty in loading
• Confusing site—not sure where to go to get what is needed
• Poor graphics
• Unnecessary information
• Poor navigation

More Web Tools

Alexa Internet, downloadable software that travels with your browser to collect and organize retrieved information <www.alexa.com> See Bates (1999)

Internet Scout includes the free Scout Report, published every Friday both on the web and by email, a newsletter of Internet resources selected and annotated by professional librarians and subject matter experts. Site also includes a current awareness service. K-12 newsletters, and Kids Report. <scout.cs.wisc.edu/ >

Meta-search engines:

AskJeeves <www.ask.com >

FAST <www.alltheweb.com>

ProFusion <www.profusion.com>

Teaching About
Information Management

An underlying assumption of the information age is that individuals should possess information literacy, that is, they should have the skills to manage and use information. Such skills involve not only the ability to use technology to access information, but also—

• an attitude that appreciates the value and power of information;
• an awareness of the diversity of information resources and formats;
• an ability to use [multiple] information retrieval systems effectively to identify, locate, and obtain needed information and data;
• an understanding of how to use or manage information for some purpose by extracting, organizing, synthesizing, and evaluating what has been retrieved (Gratch and LaFrance 1994); and
• the ability to distinguish between information and knowledge (Uline 1996).

The skills associated with information management are not new. What is new is how the Internet has changed the ability to access information. The amount of information that is almost instantly available means that sometimes information and knowledge are confused. “Information by itself is merely building material that requires synthesis and analysis to create knowledge and to lead to effective decisions” (Fornaciari and Roca 1999, p. 732).

Teaching the development of critical skills needed for information management involves both traditional analysis skills and skills related to new technology (ibid.). For example, understanding how to use management tools is essential in retrieving relevant data and avoiding information overload (see “Information Management Tools,” p. 3). Understanding how to evaluate websites is also an essential skill (see “Evaluating Websites,” p. 4).

The following steps can be followed in teaching about information management:

• Develop a meaningful search strategy that can be used as a model. Before embarking on their own projects, users should be taken through the steps of developing a strategy that resulted in a successful search for information. This strategy should be examined and discussed (ibid.).

• Define information needs. Users should select a project on which to work and develop a clear idea of what information is needed. Questions such as “what do I want to discover?” or “why is the information important?” should guide the definition of needs (ibid.).

• Practice developing strategies for accessing desired information. Users should use their project idea to practice developing search strategies. This process involves practice in selecting appropriate terms to use in the search (ibid), including the consideration of different definitions of terms, synonyms, and so forth.

• Identify appropriate information sources. Users should think about which sources of information will likely result in the kind of information needed. Are print or electronic sources or a combination likely to provide the appropriate information (ibid.)? Some exploration of sources may be required before users feel comfortable making choices. During this step, users should start to become familiar with a few trusted sources of information that provide reliable and reputable information.

• Evaluate sources. All sources, whether print or electronic, should be evaluated. Not all information is equal (Weisburg and Toor 1994) and information may carry bias. Users should be assisted in using the following criteria in evaluating sources: Who—what is the authority? What—what is being said? When—how current is the information? and Where—who is the publisher or what is the location of the site (Caruso 1997). (See p. 4 for additional information on this step.)

• Critique the information. Once the information has passed the initial evaluation step and is still considered useful, it should be critiqued. During this step, which is particularly important in order to avoid getting bogged down in information clutter, the user needs to begin to distinguish between important and trivial information. Information should be evaluated for its reliability and validity, its underlying assumptions, and so forth (Fornaciari and Roca 1999).

• Invest time in synthesis. The ease with which information can be collected and compiled can disguise the fact that synthesis still takes time. Until the information is analyzed and synthesized, it remains a compendium of data. The “human agency” of reflection and translation into something more is required or it will simply be “information for information’s sake” (Uline 1996, p. 31). In this step, the user needs to be guided through using the information to draw reasonable conclusions (Fornaciari and Roca 1999) and the development of new insights based on the sources gathered and analyzed.

Users may need to be reminded that information skills they developed in an earlier era are still valid. The basic tools for locating information may have changed but some of the ways of thinking about and acting on information remain unchanged.

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Information Management Skills: The Need

Understanding, Managing, and Coping with the Changing Information Environment